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Job rotation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Job rotation is the lateral transfer of employees between jobs in an organization without a change in their hierarchical rank or salary grade. Rotated employees usually do not remain in these jobs permanently and may also not return to former jobs. The frequency and duration of intervals in a job rotation can vary widely from daily to periods of years. The practice serves several functions including staffing, employee motivation, managing employee fatigue, employee orientation and placement, and career development.[1]

Job rotation is used systematically by a large number of companies.[2] This can be through structured job rotation programmes, or informally though the frequent lateral transfers that occur in organisations. Rotations are more common among lower performing staff who don’t generally achieve sizeable performance gains after a rotation. The rotation of higher performing staff is less prevalent, but has been shown to be beneficial for them with sizeable performance increases within two years of a job rotation. Rotation differs from promotion, which refers to an upward movement or rise in rank in an organizational hierarchy, usually indicated by an increase in responsibility and status and change in compensation.[2]

Job rotation contradicts the principles of specialization and the division of labor, which suggest employees specialize in narrowly defined tasks as a way to increase productivity. It also differs from practices such as traditional craft production, where a craftsperson may perform all the tasks to produce a final product, and job enlargement where the scope of a job may be extended.[3]

History

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Records show job rotation has been used by communal societies, such as the Shakers since the nineteenth century.[3]

There is evidence that job rotation has been practiced by firms in Japan since the early 1950’s.[3] Toyo Kogyo Company the Japanese firm that now produces Mazda automobiles, has been one such company.[4] Toyo has used job rotation to redeploy staff during economic events, but does exclude some expert areas from their system (e.g. research and development).[4]

Potentially due to the widespread usage of job rotation in Japan and the success of Japanese firms, interest in job rotation increased in the United States of America in the 1980's.[3]

The concept of job rotation has also been used to develop active labor market policies. A scheme introduced in Denmark in the early 1990’s supported unemployed people to rotate into the jobs of employed people, to enable them to participate in further training.[5]

Benefits

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This chart illustrates the Objectives for Job Rotation
  1. Employee Learning
    1. Rotation making employees more versatile
    2. Gives employees a broader understanding of the business allowing them to be better prepared to be promoted to management.[6]
  2. Employer Learning
    1. Using job rotation employers can learn their individual worker's strengths
    2. Employers receive a flexible and knowledgeable workforce that can be sourced throughout the company or agency.[6]
  3. Employee Motivation
    1. Rotation reduces boredom[6]
    2. More knowledge of the company as a whole may lead to more promotions.

Along with the company providing the opportunities and training for job rotation, the employees who participate in job rotation learn more than the one job specification deemed to them, benefiting them in the long run in case of an open position on moving up in the company or a position opening up in another firm. Along with employees benefiting, companies benefit as well. The business can hire fewer people since the majority of their staff will be able to be versatile in the job functions that the company may demand, saving the company more money and possibly giving the current employees a better salary.[7]

Job rotation is beneficial to the company in terms of productivity and reducing the leave of absence workers take throughout the year. A study was conducted to see what motivates employees in their job performance. Job security was among the least motivators. Employees wanted a sense of responsibility and pride in their tasks performed. Job rotation was created for small crews to see if the company could produce a greater employee satisfaction, desire to become comfortable in their job functions, and decrease the desire to avoid their overtime duty.[8]

Some employees are paid more for they are presenting that they are worth a greater amount since they can perform more than one job function and thus makes a higher incentive for more employees to be able to perform better in the workplace. It is a common perception to see that employees who normally opt into the program of job rotation that these individuals tend to have "higher perceived skills"[7] and are more likely to be promoted.[7]

Sometimes job rotation is practiced for the individual worker's health benefit. This practice helps rotates the individual tasks and muscle movements. It reduces the stress of an average workday so that the workers do not feel the tension in their muscles as well as can keep up in their demanding workplace. There has been electromyographic studies on this technique from mining to assembly lines.[9]

Job rotation also gives a firm a back-up plan in the case a work-gap is created in the firm.

Benefits

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Job rotation may also be used to alleviate the physical and mental stresses endured by employees when working at the same position, year after year. By allowing employees to rotate to other positions, the risk factors for some types of musculoskeletal disorders may be reduced.[10] Job Rotation is also believed to have the ability to decrease the amount of boredom and monotony experienced by employees who work the same position for extended periods of time. Job rotation caters to the employee's preferences in a variety of tasks, letting them be more flexible in their positions while endowing workers with a wide range of skills. This also allows the worker job security by developing multiple skills instead of specializing in one aspect. In times of urgency or emergency employees in job rotation are prepared to deal with unusual operations other more specialized workers may not be able to.[11]

Benefits

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Employers are able to evaluate employees not only for their output but also for their personality traits and team work skills. "Output measures may easily be translated into attributes such as leadership abilities, technical competence, relations with others and judgement."[12] Job rotation benefits the private sector by allowing workers to become flexible in skills needed throughout the company not just in one section or division, this allows companies to benefit through lower costs of needing to train new employees to do the same job.[6] There are different reasons a company may choose to use job rotation such as using job rotation as a learning mechanism. Research suggests that there are significant benefits that may out weigh the costs involved with training employees for diversified positions.[10] This employment opportunity has an effect of boosting morale and self efficacy.[13]

Benefits

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Job rotation in the public sector can be used to create communication networks between agencies. This is a benefit for agencies this in times of interagency involvement, or times of emergency.

Successful Interagency Rotation Programs—A Win-Win for Participating Individuals and Organizations

"Interagency assignments can promote networks among personnel from the host and home agencies. Job rotation programs can be designed with a formal component to encourage networking, or networks can be established informally through day-to-day interactions between the individual and his or her peers at the host agency."[10]

"Depending on the assignment, an individual can build specific skills needed for interagency collaboration, such as how to plan, lead, and execute interagency efforts. Several experts contend that the best way to teach people to lead in a collaborative environment is to provide them with an opportunity to do so."[10]

Drawbacks

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Job rotation also presents several challenges such as:

Training Resource Costs: Job rotation incurs both direct and indirect costs. Direct expenses include the financial cost for training employees across other roles, while indirect costs arise from the time and resources needed for effective role transitions.[14][15][16] During the learning phase, employees may make more errors, leading to further costs and reduced operational efficiency.[1][16] Given that approximately one-third of U.S. employees and one fifth of Europe employees change jobs within a 12-month period, the costs associated with job rotation may not be justified for some organizations.[17]

Temporary Productivity Loss: Job rotation is often associated with an initial temporary reduction in productivity, as employees undergo a learning curve while transitioning into new roles.[14][16] Loss of productivity occurs as employees learn new roles, transfer skills and familiarize themselves with new team dynamics.[18] This productivity loss can affect both the department the employee is leaving and the department receiving the employee.[1][19][20]  

Employees’ Resistance to Change: Employees may resist job rotation due to unfamiliar roles, anxiety or lack of motivation to learn new tasks.[21][22][23][24] Some employees may feel protective of their current role, especially if they have developed expertise and derive personal satisfaction from their position. Additionally, concerns about losing skills, job stability or the perception that increased responsibilities from rotation are not adequately reflected in wages may fuel resistance.[21][23][24]

Burnout and Exhaustion: Frequent or poorly managed job rotation can lead to employee exhaustion and burnout.[25] Employees might experience mental fatigue or heighten stress from constantly having to adapt to new roles, particularly when there isn’t adequate support.[22][23][26]

Inconsistent Performance: Employees may excel in certain roles, but underperform in others, especially when rotations occur too quickly or without adequate training. Furthermore, employees may be rotated into a role they are not well-suited for.[19] If a previous employee underperforms within a role, it can lead to an increased workload for the next employee, who must compensate for unfinished tasks or mistakes.[22]

Decreased Accountability: Frequent job rotations can diminish individual accountability, as employees may feel less responsible for long-term outcomes, reducing efforts and engagement.[16] This can make it challenging for expectations to be met, leading to increased stress.[22][24][25]

Specialized Industries and the Role of Automation: In industries requiring highly specialized skills, such as in law or medicine, job rotation may be impractical.[21] Additionally, the growing prevalence of artificial intelligence and automation of repetitive tasks reduces the need for job rotation in certain sectors.[27]

Increased Injury Risk: Job rotation is often used to reduce physical strain from repetitive tasks. However evidence on its effectiveness in preventing musculoskeletal complaints is contradictory and open to interpretation.[28] Rotating employees into jobs with a high risk of injury can increase the overall risk of workplace injuries.[29] Insufficient training or rotating unskilled workers into more physical or mentally demanding roles may further elevate the risk of injury.[24]

Reduced Expertise and Role Clarity: Frequent job rotation can hinder employees from developing deep expertise in one area, creating confusion about employee’s individual roles and responsibilities.[18][19] This reduction in task specialization can lower productivity and reduce product quality.[19][24]

Challenges to Recognition and Career Growth: Job rotation can make it challenging for managers to assess individual’s long-term contributions and skill developments, potentially limiting recognition and slowing career progression. Employees may  feel overlooked, leading to increased job dissatisfaction.[18]

Organizational Resistance to Job Rotation: Implementing job rotation may face resistance from both leadership and employees. In larger or more complex organizations, where knowledge-sharing systems and job structures are more bureaucratic, the effectiveness of job rotation strategies may diminish. Additionally, resistance may also arise from organizational cultures that are reluctant to share knowledge or adapt to changes brought by job rotation.[16][30]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens (1994). "Career-related antecedents and outcomes of job rotation". Academy of Management Journal. 37 (6).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b Kampkötter, Harbring, & Sliwka (2016). "Job rotation and employee performance – evidence from a longitudinal study in the financial services industry". The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 29 (10): 1709–1735.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b c d Cosgel & Miceli (1998). "On Job Rotation". Economics Working Papers (199802).
  4. ^ a b Lohr, Steve (12 July 1982). "How job rotation works for Japanese". The New York Times.
  5. ^ Hutchinson, J (1999). "Job Rotation: Linking learning, business growth and unemployment?". Local Economy. 14 (2): 175–179.
  6. ^ a b c d Eriksson, Tor; Ortega, Jaime (July 2006). "The Adoption of Job Rotation: Testing the Theories". ILR Review. 59 (4): 653–666. doi:10.1177/001979390605900407. hdl:10016/7627. S2CID 35703916.
  7. ^ a b c Arya, Anil; Mittendorf, Brian (2006). "Using Optional Job Rotation Programs to Gauge On-the-Job Learning". Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics. 162 (3): 505–515. doi:10.1628/093245606778387401. JSTOR 40752598.
  8. ^ McGuire, John H. (December 1981). "Productivity gains through job reorganization and rotation". Journal - American Water Works Association. 73 (12): 622–623. Bibcode:1981JAWWA..73l.622M. doi:10.1002/j.1551-8833.1981.tb04824.x.
  9. ^ Jonsson, Bengt (1988). "Electromyographic studies of job rotation". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 14: 108–109. JSTOR 40958847. PMID 3393862.
  10. ^ a b c d Craig, Laura Miller; Nierenberg, Jessica (2014). "Interagency Rotation Programs: Professional Development for Future Enterprise Leaders". In Nickerson, Jackson; Sanders, Ronald (eds.). Tackling Wicked Government Problems: A Practical Guide for Developing Enterprise Leaders. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 141–152. ISBN 978-0-8157-2640-1. JSTOR 10.7864/j.ctt7zsvkw.14.
  11. ^ Coşgel, Metin M.; Miceli, Thomas J. (1999). "Job Rotation: Cost, Benefits, and Stylized Facts". Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics. 155 (2): 301–320. JSTOR 40752141.
  12. ^ Hatvany, Nina; Pucik, Vladimir (1981). "An Integrated Management System: Lessons from the Japanese Experience". The Academy of Management Review. 6 (3): 469–480. doi:10.2307/257382. JSTOR 257382.
  13. ^ Schultz, Duane P.; Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010). Psychology and Work Today: An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Prentice Hall. pp. 136, 144, 176. ISBN 978-0-205-68358-1.
  14. ^ a b Dhanraj, Dayanath; Parumasur, Sanjana Brijball (2014). "EMPLOYEE PERCEPTIONS OF JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND CHALLENGES OF JOB ROTATION". Corporate Ownership and Control.
  15. ^ Santos, Ronnie E. S.; da Silva, Fabio Q. B.; Baldassarre, Maria Teresa; de Magalhães, Cleyton V. C. (2017). "Benefits and limitations of project-to-project job rotation in software organizations: A synthesis of evidence". Information and Software Technology. 89: 78–96. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2017.04.006. ISSN 0950-5849.
  16. ^ a b c d e Thongpapanl, Narongsak; Kaciak, Eugene; Welsh, Dianne H.B. (2018). "Growing and aging of entrepreneurial firms: Implications for job rotation and joint reward". International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research. 24 (6): 1087–1103. doi:10.1108/IJEBR-03-2018-0135. ISSN 1355-2554.
  17. ^ Cooper-Thomas, Helena; Anderson, Neil Robert; Cash, Melanie (2011). "Investigating organizational socialization: A fresh look at newcomer adjustment strategies". Personnel Review. 41 (1): 41–55.
  18. ^ a b c Santos, Ronnie E. S.; Da Silva, Fabio Q. B.; De Magalhães, Cleyton V. C.; Monteiro, Cleviton V. F. (2016). "Building a theory of job rotation in software engineering from an instrumental case study". Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Software Engineering: 971–981. doi:10.1145/2884781.2884837.
  19. ^ a b c d Casad, Scott (2012). "Implications of job rotation literature for performance improvement practitioners". Performance Improvement Quarterly. 25 (2): 27–41. doi:10.1002/piq.21118.
  20. ^ Santos, Ronnie E. S.; da Silva, Fabio Q. B.; de Magalhães, Cleyton V. C. (2016). "Benefits and limitations of job rotation in software organizations: a systematic literature review". Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering. EASE '16. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery: 1–12. doi:10.1145/2915970.2915988. ISBN 978-1-4503-3691-8.
  21. ^ a b c Salih, Mohammed Omer Idris; Al.Ibed, Al Beisani Al Nabulsi Yousif (2017). "Job Rotation & Its Impact on employees' Performance: An Empirical Study among Employees at Red Sea University, Sudan". International Journal of Scientific Research and Management (IJSRM). 5 (7): 6181–6184. doi:10.18535/ijsrm/v5i7.46. ISSN 2321-3418.
  22. ^ a b c d Idris, Idris; Wahyudi, Sugeng (2021). "Job Rotation and Work Motivation: Will it Improve Employee Performance?". Webology. 18 (Special Issue on Computing Technology and Information Management): 1086–1098. doi:10.14704/WEB/V18SI04/WEB18183. ISSN 1943-023X.
  23. ^ a b c Richardson, Annette; Douglas, Margaret; Shuttler, Rachel; Hagland, Martin R (2003). "Critical care staff rotation: outcomes of a survey and pilot study". Nursing in Critical Care. 8 (2): 84–89. doi:10.1046/j.1478-5153.2003.00011.x. ISSN 1362-1017.
  24. ^ a b c d e Triggs, Donald. D; King, Phyllis. M (2000). "Job rotation". Professional safety. 45 (2): 32.
  25. ^ a b Foroutan, Taraneh; Safavi, Homayoun Pasha; Bouzari, Mona (2021). "The ugly side of job rotation". International Journal of Hospitality Management. 95: 102929. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102929. ISSN 0278-4319.
  26. ^ Ollo-Lopez, Andrea; Bayo-Moriones, Alberto; Larraza-Kintana, Martin (2010). "The Relationship between New Work Practices and Employee Effort". Journal of Industrial Relations. 52 (2): 219–235. doi:10.1177/0022185609359446. ISSN 0022-1856.
  27. ^ Du, Jiaxing (2024). "AI and Your Job What's Changing and What's Next". Frontiers in Science and Engineering. doi:10.54691/0dbksd82.
  28. ^ Leider, Priscilla C.; Boschman, Julitta S.; Frings-Dresen, Monique H. W.; van der Molen, Henk F. (2015). "Effects of job rotation on musculoskeletal complaints and related work exposures: a systematic literature review". Ergonomics. 58 (1): 18–32. doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.961566. ISSN 1366-5847. PMID 25267494.
  29. ^ Mehdizadeh, Amir; Vinel, Alexander; Hu, Qiong; Schall, Mark C.; Gallagher, Sean; Sesek, Richard F. (2020). "Job rotation and work-related musculoskeletal disorders: a fatigue-failure perspective". Ergonomics. 63 (4): 461–476. doi:10.1080/00140139.2020.1717644. ISSN 1366-5847. PMID 31951779.
  30. ^ Brunold, Julia; Durst, Susanne (2012). "Intellectual capital risks and job rotation". Journal of Intellectual Capital. 13 (2): 178–195. doi:10.1108/14691931211225021. ISSN 1469-1930.

Further reading

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  • Jorgensen, Michael; Davis, Kermit; Kotowski, Susan; Aedla, Pranathi; Dunning, Kari (15 December 2005). "Characteristics of job rotation in the Midwest US manufacturing sector". Ergonomics. 48 (15): 1721–1733. doi:10.1080/00140130500247545. PMID 16373313. S2CID 30410979.
  • Ortega, Jaime (October 2001). "Job Rotation as a Learning Mechanism". Management Science. 47 (10): 1361–1370. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.908.6571. doi:10.1287/mnsc.47.10.1361.10257.
  • Santos, Ronnie E.S.; da Silva, Fabio Q.B.; Baldassarre, Maria Teresa; de Magalhães, Cleyton V.C. (September 2017). "Benefits and limitations of project-to-project job rotation in software organizations: A synthesis of evidence". Information and Software Technology. 89: 78–96. doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2017.04.006. hdl:11586/194262.
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